By the end of this section, you will be able to: Consciousnessdescribes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. One way that this happens involves traveling across multiple time zones. You were capable of engaging in the all of the complex tasks involved with operating a motor vehicle even though you were not aware of doing so. Withdrawal from opioids includes pain, which patients often misinterpret as pain caused by the problem that led to the original prescription, and which motivates patients to continue using the drugs. In addition, if a pregnant woman consumes alcohol, her infant may be born with a cluster of birth defects and symptoms collectively called fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) or fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Central sleep apnea is caused by a failure of the brain to activate the muscles of breathing during sleep. Evolutionary psychologyis a discipline that studies how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time as a result ofnatural selection. Acute alcohol administration results in a variety of changes to consciousness. Sleep reboundrefers to the fact that a sleep-deprived individual will fall asleep more quickly during subsequent opportunities for sleep. Case fatality rates have varied from 25% to 90 . Consider a patient who believed that as a result of his sleep apnea he had three car accidents in six weeks. Some view a hypnotized persons behavior not as an altered or dissociated state of consciousness, but as their fulfillment of the social expectations for that role (Coe, 2009; Coe & Sarbin, 1966). Mescaline and LSD are serotonin agonists, and PCP (angel dust) and ketamine (an animal anesthetic) act as antagonists of the NMDA glutamate receptor. Acetylcholine functions as a neurotransmitter in motor neurons. As mentioned earlier, REM sleep is marked by rapid movements of the eyes. Acircadian rhythmis a biological rhythm that takes place over a period of about 24 hours. As an individual continues through stage 1 sleep, there is an increase in theta wave activity. This chapter will discuss states of consciousness with a particular emphasis on sleep. The brains clock mechanism is located in an area of the hypothalamus known as thesuprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). Opioids have analgesic properties; that is, they decrease pain. People who suffer from this disorder can injure themselves or their sleeping partners when engaging in these behaviors. Research shows that the most severe effects of sleep deprivation occur when a person stays awake for more than 24 hours (Killgore & Weber, 2014; Killgore et al., 2007), or following repeated nights with fewer than four hours in bed (Wickens, Hutchins, Lauk, Seebook, 2015). Surprisingly, narcoleptic episodes are often triggered by states of heightened arousal or stress. Remarkably, Falater insisted that he had no recollection of hurting his wife in any way. Medical marijuana is marijuana that is prescribed by a doctor for the treatment of a health condition. Few people in the United States remain untouched by the recent opioid epidemic. Two sleeping children are depicted in this 1895 oil painting titled. Often, we are not completely aware of our surroundings, even when we are fully awake. There was a significant positive correlation between the degree to which women thought about their former spouses during waking hours and the number of times their former spouses appeared as characters in their dreams (Cartwright, Agargun, Kirkby, & Friedman, 2006). The first stage of NREM sleep is known as stage 1 sleep. For example, irritability, distractibility, and impairments in cognitive and moral judgment can occur with fewer than four hours of sleep. The hypnogram below (Figure 4.12) shows a persons passage through the stages of sleep. For example, withdrawal from sedative drugs often produces unpleasant arousal and agitation. This will be followed by brief descriptions of the effects of some of the more well-known drugs commonly used today. Social programs like Medicare: a - offer health coverage for the older adults 24. The effects of all psychoactive drugs occur through their interactions with our endogenous neurotransmitter systems. This campaign is sponsored in part by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Sleepwalking, restless leg syndrome, and night terrors are all examples of parasomnias (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Some forms of psychotherapy, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, can help sufferers of insomnia. Because GABA has a quieting effect on the brain, GABA agonists also have a quieting effect; these types of drugs are often prescribed to treat both anxiety and insomnia. This section will consider these questions and explore various explanations for why we sleep. Therefore, no movement of voluntary muscles occurs during REM sleep in a normal individual; REM sleep is often referred to as paradoxical sleep because of this combination of high brain activity and lack of muscle tone. Historically, hypnosis has been viewed with some suspicion because of its portrayal in popular media and entertainment (Figure 4.20). Some people also experience altered states of consciousness through meditation, hypnosis, or alcohol and other drugs. For instance, the concentration of various ions in your blood must be kept steady, along with pH and the concentration of glucose. Not able to pass stool or gas. Depletion of certain neurotransmitters can lead to mood dysphoria, cognitive problems, and other factors. The participant is guided to focus on one thing, such as the hypnotists words or a ticking watch. Codeineis an opioid with relatively low potency. By the late 19th century, German psychiatrist SigmundFreudhad become convinced that dreams represented an opportunity to gain access to the unconscious. (credit a: modification of work by Jim Epler; credit b: modification of work by Caleb Roenigk), video about circadian rhythms and how they affect sleep, video that gives sleep tips for college students, video about the relationship between sleep and memory, instructional video about using Buddhist meditation techniques to alleviate stress, video about the results of a brain imaging study in individuals who underwent specific mindfulness meditative techniques, https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, Cocaine, amphetamines (including some ADHD medications such as Adderall), methamphetamines, MDMA (Ecstasy or Molly), Increased heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature. While hypnosis is generally achieved through the interaction of a therapist and the person being treated, an individual can perform meditation alone. d. respond to illnesses much like the older adults do. It is relatively easy to wake someone from stage 1 sleep; in fact, people often report that they have not been asleep if they are awoken during stage 1 sleep. Avoid alcohol, cigarettes, caffeine, and heavy meals before bed. Physiologically, the body can become addicted to opiate drugs in less than a week, including when taken as prescribed. Variations and adaptations in cognition and behavior make individuals more or less successful in reproducing and passing their genes to their offspring. On January 16, 1997, Scott Falater sat down to dinner with his wife and children and told them about difficulties he was experiencing on a project at work. As a result, many of us sleep less than 78 hours a night and accrue a sleep debt. As you will learn when you study social roles, peoples behavior can be shaped by their expectations of how they should act in a given situation. These changes in brain wave activity can be visualized using EEG and are distinguished from one another by both the frequency and amplitude of brain waves (Figure 4.7). Given the central role that sleep plays in our lives and the number of adverse consequences that have been associated with sleep deprivation, one would think that we would have a clear understanding of why it is that we sleep. For example, she and her colleagues published a study in which women going through divorce were asked several times over a five-month period to report the degree to which their former spouses were on their minds. High doses can induce sleep, cause motor disturbance, memory loss, decreased respiratory function, and death. Depending on the population and sleep disorder being studied, between 30% and 50% of the population suffers from a sleep disorder at some point in their lives (Bixler, Kales, Soldatos, Kaels, & Healey, 1979; Hossain & Shapiro, 2002; Ohayon, 1997, 2002; Ohayon & Roth, 2002). However, for some, its not because of all-night partying or late-night study sessions. According to Jung, certain symbols in dreams reflected universal archetypes with meanings that are similar for all people regardless of culture or location. 1. Originally reported as a safe alternative to the known cancer-causing agents found in cigarettes, vaping is now known to be very dangerous and has led to serious lung disease and death in users. c. An agonist facilitates the activity of a neurotransmitter system, and antagonists impede neurotransmitter activity. Thus we sleep in safe areas to reduce the chance of harm. Despite the prevalence of caffeine use and the large number of people who confess to suffering from caffeine addiction, this was the first published description of soda dependence appearing in scientific literature. (Jayanthi & Ramamoorthy, 2005; Rothman, Blough, & Baumann, 2007). Like all opioids, codeine does have abuse potential. 22. Sleep apnea is much more common in overweight people and is often associated with loud snoring. In terms of brain wave activity, stage 1 sleep is associated with both alpha and theta waves. Loss of appetite. Many of these processes, like much of psychological behavior, are rooted in our biology. Diarrhea. Sleep apnea is defined as a reduction or cessation of breathing during sleep. Our states of consciousness change as we move from wakefulness to sleep. If someone stays awake for 48 consecutive hours, they could start to hallucinate. If you get peritoneal dialysis, peritonitis symptoms also may include: Cloudy dialysis fluid. These kinds of schedules are common for individuals working in health care professions and service industries, and they are associated with persistent feelings of exhaustion and agitation that can make someone more prone to making mistakes on the job (Gold et al., 1992; Presser, 1995). Brain waves during REM sleep appear very similar to brain waves during wakefulness. If you lie down to take a nap and fall asleep very easily, chances are you may have sleep debt. In 2012, Kromann and Nielson reported on a case study of a 40-year-old woman who suffered significant ill effects from her use of caffeine. Five cardinal signs characterize this response: pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. In recent years, methamphetamine (meth) use has become increasingly widespread. With excessive alcohol use, a person might experience a complete loss of consciousness and/or difficulty remembering events that occurred during a period of intoxication (McKim & Hancock, 2013). a. A sleep deprived individual generally will fall asleep more quickly than if she were not sleep deprived. That includes exercise and bright light from devices. Some people might turn to over-the-counter (OTC) or prescribed sleep medications to help them sleep, but this should be done sparingly because many sleep medications result in dependence and alter the nature of the sleep cycle, and they can increase insomnia over time. A person who has a substance use disorder often uses more of the substance than they originally intended to and continues to use that substance despite experiencing significant adverse consequences. Hypnosis has also been used to draw out information believed to be buried deeply in someones memory. Stage 2 sleep is characterized by the appearance of both sleep spindles and K-complexes. As he went to investigate what was going on, he was met by a group of police officers who arrested him for the murder of his wife (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). Recent adaptations (e.g., Hobson, 2002) continue to update the theory based on accumulating evidence. You have read that the pineal gland releases melatonin during sleep (Figure 4.6). Meditative techniques have their roots in religious practices (Figure 4.21), but their use has grown in popularity among practitioners of alternative medicine. Incentral sleep apnea, disruption in signals sent from the brain that regulate breathing cause periods of interrupted breathing (White, 2005). Heroin users often shoot the drug directly into their veins. Causes. The body maintains homeostasis for many factors in addition to temperature. As a group, hallucinogens are incredibly varied in terms of the neurotransmitter systems they affect. Increased prescriptions led to greater rates of misuse, along with greater incidence of addiction, even among patients who used these drugs as prescribed. Acontinuous positive airway pressure (CPAP)device includes a mask that fits over the sleepers nose and mouth, which is connected to a pump that pumps air into the persons airways, forcing them to remain open, as shown inFigure 4.13. These individual differences in circadian patterns of activity are known as a persons chronotype, and research demonstrates that morning larks and night owls differ with regard to sleep regulation (Taillard, Philip, Coste, Sagaspe, & Bioulac, 2003). The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? Sleep is characterized by certain patterns of activity of the brain that can be visualized using electroencephalography (EEG), and different phases of sleep can be differentiated using EEG as well. Thirst. A neighbor called the police after witnessing Falater standing over his wifes body before dragging her into the pool. In our discussion of the mental symptoms I reported as an illustration of the suggestive treatment of the drug passion the case of a morphinist. Just as bears hibernate in the winter when resources are scarce, perhaps people sleep at night to reduce their energy expenditures. Thepineal gland, an endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin, is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and of the immune system during sleep (Hardeland, Pandi-Perumal, & Cardinali, 2006). During this time, there is a slowdown in both the rates of respiration and heartbeat. It may seem counterintuitive that stimulant medications are prescribed to treat a disorder that involves hyperactivity, but the therapeutic effect comes from increases in neurotransmitter activity within certain areas of the brain associated with impulse control. Mindfulness meditation has recently become popular. The average EVD case fatality rate is around 50%. A) managed care While disruptions in circadian rhythms can have negative consequences, there are things we can do to help us realign our biological clocks with the external environment. While awake, we feel alert and aware of the many important things going on around us. Furthermore, slow-wave sleep after learning a new task can improve resultant performance on that task (Huber, Ghilardi, Massimini, & Tononi, 2004) and seems essential for effective memory formation (Stickgold, 2005). Contrary to popular belief, individuals undergoing hypnosis usually have clear memories of the hypnotic experience and are in control of their own behaviors. REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)occurs when the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur. Despite recent changes in laws designed to make obtaining pseudoephedrine more difficult, methamphetamine continues to be an easily accessible and relatively inexpensive drug option (Shukla, Crump, & Chrisco, 2012). Opioid addiction reached crisis levels in the United States such that by 2019, an average of 130 people diedeach dayof an opioid overdose (NIDA, 2019). Cocaine can be taken in multiple ways. The freebase version of cocaine, known as crack, is a potent, smokable version of the drug. Therefore, the abuse potential of central nervous system depressants is relatively high. In the latter part of 2013, however, the United States Department of Justice issued statements indicating that they would not continue to challenge state medical marijuana laws. AK-complexis a very high amplitude pattern of brain activity that may in some cases occur in response to environmental stimuli. A person withrestless leg syndromehas uncomfortable sensations in the legs during periods of inactivity or when trying to fall asleep. It appeared that Scott Falater had killed his wife in his sleep, or at least, that is the defense he used when he was tried for his wifes murder (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). The 20th century Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung believed that dreams allowed us to tap into the collective unconscious. In a lucid dream, a person becomes aware of the fact that they are dreaming, and as such, they can control the dreams content (LaBerge, 1990). Rather, the ISS r ecognizes mixed states and depressive symptoms during manic and hypomanic episodes. (West et al., 2009, p. 114). Biological rhythmsare internal rhythms of biological activity. These drugs share in common their ability to serve as agonists of the gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter system. The following morning, he awoke to barking dogs and unfamiliar voices from downstairs. In the therapeutic setting, a clinician may use relaxation and suggestion in an attempt to alter the thoughts and perceptions of a patient. While there are variations, there are four parts that appear consistent in bringing people into the state of suggestibility associated with hypnosis (National Research Council, 1994).
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