A requirement to uphold the confidentiality of information shared in the physician-patient relationship is a central tenet of medical professionalism that, while at risk and undermined in various ways in modern medicine [1], has been consistently endorsed from the time of Hippocrates. (b). Stephen ID, Hiew V, Coetzee V, Tiddeman BP, Perrett DI. Borsos Z, Gyori M. Can automated facial expression analysis show differences between autism and typical functioning? How Should Clinicians Communicate With Patients About the Roles of Artificially Intelligent Team Members? Imagine you are in your local park feeding the ducks on the pond when you hear a loud splash; a child has fallen into the pond and is struggling to swim. Perhaps it can in some way be quantified, so that if carrying out some act would damage the integrity of the individual so grievously that the maximum utility could be reached only if they failed to act, then not acting would be the right thing to do. Some of the moral philosophers associated with this theory include Jeremy Bentham, David Hume, Henry Sidgwick and many others. Philos Public Aff. The author(s) had no conflicts of interest to disclose. Core values versus common sense: consequentialist views appear less rooted in morality. A consequence of consequentialism, however, is that it fails to respect the integrity of the individuals involved. The best-known consequentialist ethical theory is utilitarianism, which says that the wrongness or rightness of an action depends on the amount of overall good or utility that is produced. Privacy and data protections are key to advancing FRT and making it helpful. https://mhealthintelligence.com/news/ehr-provider-touts-mhealth-access-by-apples-facial-recognition-app. An action that brings about more benefit than harm is good, while an action that causes more harm than benefit is not. Guidance regarding methods for de-identification of protected health information in accordance with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) Privacy Rule. Daniel Schiff, MS and Jason Borenstein, PhD, Confidentiality/Duty to protect confidential information, https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320316.php, https://www.wired.com/2017/01/computers-can-tell-glance-youve-got-genetic-disorders/, http://www.mobihealthnews.com/content/fdna-launches-app-based-tool-clinicians-using-facial-recognition-ai-and-genetic-big-data, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/can-your-face-reveal-how-long-youll-live-new-technology-may-provide-the-answer/2014/07/02/640bacb4-f748-11e3-a606-946fd632f9f1_story.html, https://medcitynews.com/2016/01/aicure-fundraise/, https://mhealthintelligence.com/news/ehr-provider-touts-mhealth-access-by-apples-facial-recognition-app, https://medium.com/ibm-watson-data-lab/keeping-your-machine-learning-models-up-to-date-f1ead546591b, https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2017/09/06/ten-things-everyone-should-know-about-machine-learning, https://undark.org/article/facial-recognition-technology-biased-understudied/, https://medium.com/@blaisea/do-algorithms-reveal-sexual-orientation-or-just-expose-our-stereotypes-d998fafdf477, https://www.technologyreview.com/s/604087/the-dark-secret-at-the-heart-of-ai/, http://www.clinicalinformaticsnews.com/2017/10/06/3d-facial-recognition-gives-healthcare-data-a-new-look.aspx, https://oneworldidentity.com/google-takes-aim-controversial-stringent-illinois-biometric-privacy-law/, https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/privacy/special-topics/de-identification/index.html. FRT raises novel challenges regarding privacy. Like above, what sorts of consequences are morally good and what sorts are morally bad need to be . However, having evolved from a set of Christian values and principles, it retains certain deontological characteristics. FRT in health care also raises ethical questions about privacy and data protection, potential bias in the data or analysis, and potential negative implications for the therapeutic alliance in patient-clinician relationships. P2. 101-336, 104 Stat 327. This site uses cookies to recognize users and allow us to analyse site usage. Utilitarianism is a moral theory, which works as a form of consequentialism helps individuals to assess whether an action is good or bad. Ethical principles and concepts in medicine. By looking at the two ethical strands side-by-side we can quickly see that Deontology is distinctly focused on the individual, whereas Utilitarianism places importance on . Non-consequentialism, the person as an end-in-itself, and the significance of status. The most famous version of non-consequentialism is deontology, which holds that one has an absolute duty to obey certain rules. Haahr A, Norlyk A, Martinsen B, Dreyer P. Nurs Ethics. The other way of thinking about the relationship is the focus of this paper. So, if Oliver had a wide network of adoring cat lovers because of his friendly, playful nature, unlike Benjy who prefers a life of peaceful solitude I should save Oliver as this would cause the least pain and produce the most pleasure for the people that know him. Is a theory of moral obligation their proponent puts it forth as a framework within which a person can correctly determine, on any given occasion, what he or she (morally) ought to do [ 2 ]. Consequentialism And Abortion. The consequentialist could retort that in calculating what course of action is right, the individuals integrity can be taken into account. Consequentialism teaches that people should do whatever produces the greatest amount of good consequences. Consequentialism is a type of normative ethical theory which states that the moral quality of an action is completely determined by its consequences, and nothing else. By saying that Jim should shoot the one Indian the consequentialist fails to take into account the impact that this would have on Jims life. This structure means that the ends often justify the means when seeking to create a specific result. Epub 2022 Apr 9. MeSH This chapter discusses consequentialism. In one moment Jim goes from being a tourist in a foreign country to becoming a murderer for the sake of morality. . Counselling and bespoke consulting programs to help you make better decisions and navigate complexity. The strong point of consequentialism is that it provides a clear and easy-to-understand guideline. 1-2.) Even if nobody would be hurt, our speeding laws mean less people are harmed overall. Any prior commitments are disregarded or, if taken into consideration, are unlikely to have any substantial effect on the outcome. Our Biometric Future: Facial Recognition Technology and the Culture of Surveillance. Especially in India the incidence of birth defects, cancers and diseases related to skin, lungs, brain, kidneys and liver are several times more dominant than any other communities.8 The river drainage has significant influence on the land use and socio-economic fabric of the basin. It appears that you have an ad-blocker running. M1- Analyse the impact of prevening discriminaion for individuals with diferent needs. ISSN 2376-6980. He believed it was too difficult for a society to run if it had to consider the specific costs/benefits of every single action. It presents Utilitarianism as characterised by the following five features: (1) consequentialism, (2) welfarism, (3) equality of moral status and impartiality, (4) maximisation, (5) aggregation. You can read four articles free per month. On the next ward is Patient A who has a curable disease and also is a suitable donor for the other patients. Nurses' experiences of providing ethical care to the patients with COVID-19: A phenomenological study. If Jim refuses to kill anyone then he is therefore responsible for the deaths of the others. 2005 Oct;25(5):312-27. In: Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Computing, Communication and Automation (ICCCA); April 29-30, 2016; Noida, India:399-404. Also, it does not matter who performs the action, only the action itself as Williams example shows. 5 Health Care Ethics - Critical Issues for the 21st Century; Eileen E. Morrison ; About the . An example of consequentialism is utilitarianism. FOIA Clearly it is an abhorrent thought that an individual would be sacrificed simply to promote overall welfare in complete disregard for their life. Williams furthers this explanation; making the best of a bad job is one of its maxims, and it will have something to say even on the difference between massacring seven million, and massacring seven million and one (Consequentialism and its Critics, 1988). Wellcome TrustFunded Monographs and Book Chapters. Public health ethics only began to gain prominence as a distinct field within bioethics around the year 2000 and its proponents have had the task of defining it as distinct from medical ethics due to the distinct nature of public health (e.g., Childress et al., 2002, p. 170; Dawson, 2011, p. 1; Upshur, 2002, p. 101). Consequentialism focuses on promoting the best consequences, but what kind of consequences are the best? Utilitarianism judges consequences by a greatest good for the greatest number standard. Data Lab. 2007;2(1):26. It is therefore important to weigh the relative benefits and burdens of specific FRT uses in health care and to conduct research into how patients perceive its use. Now, if the foreign power does intervene on the basis of humanitarian concerns to liberate the minority from the reign of terror that subjects to such misery and death, war becomes a necessary and moral objective on part of the foreign power to liberate the minority people. The relatively small, single-site sample may not account for the effects of organisational culture on the results; the findings suggested that professional relationships were key to resolving ethical dilemmas. Consequentialism is the theory in moral philosophy that says our actions should aim at producing the best consequences. Consequentialism refers to a group of ethical theories that hold an act or institution to be right if it yields the most desirable effects of consequences. Katy Baker studied Philosophy at the University of Kent and is now part of the Philosophy Now team. Patient privacy. Smart and Bernard Williams, 1973. Consequentialism is a normative ethics theory whereby the ends justify the means; in other words, the consequence of an action justifies the moral acceptability of an action of the means taken to reach that end. However, since Jim is an honoured visitor from another land, the captain is happy to offer him a guests privilege of killing one of the Indians himself. With a little help from Batman, Hank explains the principle of utility, and the d For more information on consequentialism and utilitarianism follow the links below: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/utilitarianism-history/, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mill-moral-political/, https://ethics.org.au/ethics-explainer-consequentialism/, All Content is the property of Keerut Oberai unless stated otherwise or an external link.Made with Squarespace. Washington Post. Bookshelf and hey presto! FRT systems can store data as a complete facial image or as a facial template.34 Facial templates are considered biometric data and thus personally identifiable information.35 The idea that a photo can reveal private health information is relatively new, and privacy regulations and practices are still catching up. You must recall and relate knowledge of how the professionals in the case studies promote equality and diversity and the skills and attributes needed to do this.. 25 (4). One way is by using ethical concepts to shed light on everyday practice. Findings: Applications of facial recognition technology (FRT) in health care settings have been developed to identify and monitor patients as well as to diagnose genetic, medical, and behavioral conditions. Consequentialism in scenario. Viewed from a consequentialist perspective, one of the primary purposes of an organizational ethics program is to ensure that the organization is not penalized for the actions of its individual employees and to avoid the bad consequences that might result from such actions (e.g., fines, lawsuits, etc). It is one of the main causes of preventable blindness in young children from developing countries. As FRT becomes capable of detecting a wider range of health conditions, such as behavioral24 or developmental disorders,25 health care organizations and software developers will need to decide which types of analyses should be included in a FRT system and the conditions under which patients might need to be informed of incidental findings. Furthermore, consumer-centred healthcare is becoming heavily reliant on digital technology. Ethical decision making in nurses. Consequentialism's definition merely. As with any new health technology, careful attention should be paid to the accuracy and validity of FRT used in health care applications as well as to informed consent and reporting incidental findings to patients. Submit a manuscript for peer review consideration. PMC One famous way of putting this is 'the greatest good for the greatest number of people'.. To this objection, the consequentialist can protest that alienation can be a virtue. A study of nurses' ethical climate perceptions: Compromising in an uncompromising environment. But if telling a lie would help save a persons life, consequentialism says its the right thing to do. Participants were recruited from all settings working with patients of any age and any diagnosis. Consumerism in healthcare is not merely about supporting hospitals, insurance companies and other businesses. For instance, most people would agree that lying is wrong. National Library of Medicine Through alienating ourselves Railton shows that adopting ones exclusive ultimate end in life in the pursuit of maximum happiness may well prevent one from having experiences or engaging in certain sorts of commitments that are among the greatest sources of happiness (Alienation, Consequentialism and the Demands of Morality, Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1984). https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/privacy/special-topics/de-identification/index.html. 2014 Nov;40(11):1529-42. doi: 10.1177/0146167214551154. One World Identity. If this is demanded of all moral agents, then general unhappiness is likely to ensue rather than the opposite. According to this theory, it would be unethical for you to speed on an empty street at two oclock in the morning. (Feiser) Consequentialism says that the consequences of an action are all that matter when taking an ethical decision to act. Atlas of human malformation syndromes in diverse populations. B. Consequentialism- main emphasis is on the outcome or consequence of the action . So whilst both acts are morally abhorrent, the consequentialist will inevitably say that if these are the only options available then not only should we choose to massacre seven million, but that it would be right to do so. Their justification is that this action would produce the most overall welfare.. Utilitarianism (also called consequentialism) is a moral theory developed and refined in the modern world in the writings of Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). Managing ongoing swallow safety through information-sharing: An ethnography of speech and language therapists and nurses at work on stroke units. One doctor speaking to the Business Insider claimed: "If you had, let's say, an ICU that was overwhelmed, you're probably going to try and give some extra attention to healthcare workers because you need them to deliver care," he said. Cachn-Prez JM, Gonzalez-Villanueva P, Rodriguez-Garcia M, Oliva-Fernandez O, Garcia-Garcia E, Fernandez-Gonzalo JC. All Rights Reserved. Accessed March 28, 2017. A heavy man in a sweat-stained khaki shirt turns out to be the captain in charge and, after a good deal of questioning of Jim which establishes that he got there by accident while on a botanical expedition, explains that the Indians are a random group of the inhabitants who, after recent acts of protest against the government, are just about to be killed to remind other possible protestors of the advantages of not protesting. Consequentialism claims that whether an action is right or wrong depends on the consequences that it brings about. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! The foregoing are just a sample of the ethical approaches a healthcare professional may adopt in practice and it may be argued that there are three main moral theories from which these approaches may, in part, spring, namely virtue ethics, deontology and consequentialism. Philosophy , Volume 56 , Issue 218 , October 1981 , pp. http://arxiv.org/abs/1403.0485. Instead, Mill believed we should figure out which set of rules would create the most happiness over an extended period of time and then apply those in every situation. This chapter outlines core characteristics of Utilitarianism and explores them with regard to their significance in healthcare settings. As Peter Railton says: The alienation of some individuals or groups from their milieu may at times be necessary for fundamental social criticism or cultural innovation (Alienation, Consequentialism and the Demands of Morality, Philosophy and Public Affairs 1984). In this way, consequentialism ethics provide criteria for the moral evaluation of actions, while also recommending rules or decision-making criteria for future actions. Chen S, Pan ZX, Zhu HJ, et al. mHealthIntelligence. Agera y Arcas B, Todorov A, Mitchell M. Do algorithms reveal sexual orientation or just expose our stereotypes? MIT Technology Review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. It emphasises four key ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice, which are shared by most ethical theories, and blends these with virtues and practical wisdom. We will close by outlining the areas where consequentialism is at odds with current medical law and how medical law should evolve according to consequentialism. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. According to non-consequentialism, the rightness of an action is not solely determined by its consequences. If consequentialism is to take a hedonistic approach that we should act so as to maximise overall happiness then it results in a contradiction. 2005 Dec;31(12):739-42. doi: 10.1136/jme.2005.011908. VAD can have numerous negative health effects such as dryness of the eye that can lead to blindness if untreated, reduced immune system response, and an increase in the severity and mortality risk of infections. Front Psychol. If you dont, you should be held partly responsible for the childs death. Using the example of Jim and the Indians, Williams successfully illustrates that consequentialism fails to respect the integrity of the individual because in deciding what is wrong or right what really matters is not the action but the outcome of it. McCullom R. Facial recognition technology is both biased and understudied. Learn more in our Cookie Policy. Tap here to review the details. Rather than taking into account our own attitudes towards an action, by taking an objective standpoint we are able to remove ourselves from our usual social groups and ideologies which affect the way in which we act and look at a situation, and instead we should act without bias. 1. 8600 Rockville Pike And it gives this general guidance on how to live: People should live so as to maximise good consequences. While FRT systems in health care can de-identify data, some experts are skeptical that such data can be truly anonymized21; from clinical and ethical perspectives, informing patients about this kind of risk is critical. Much of medical law is consequentialist in nature. Why facial recognition is the future of diagnostics. Consequentialism Deontology (Biomedical Ethics) Charles Lohman . October 6, 2017. http://www.clinicalinformaticsnews.com/2017/10/06/3d-facial-recognition-gives-healthcare-data-a-new-look.aspx. You can read the details below. The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). This is because all things being equal they will live longer and may contribute more to society over a longer period of time. Putting ethics at the centre of everyday life. Accessed April 8, 2017. But if telling a lie. Consequentialism is a rival to such moral theories as deontology, contractualism, and virtue ethics. Type. Samples. Consequentialism is a normative ethical theory, which means, it is a theory about ethical action and a proposed method for deciding how one should choose the right ethical act. He said, she said: Investigating the Christian Porter Case. To do so, lets look at a current example of limited resources, such as ventilators, in hospitals during the Covid-19 outbreak and how we may decide which patients should be allocated these resources. For consequentialism, life is a numbers game; an action should aim to make the majority happy, regardless of who they are, and should aim to go for actions that produce minimal pain. Epub 2019 Apr 11. Loos HS, Wieczorek D, Wrtz, RP, von der Malsburg C, Horsthemke B. Schneider HJ, Kosilek RP, Gnther M, et al. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. There will need to be careful thought and study of the broader impact of FRT in health care settings. When a service user is speaking to a health care professional it is important for them to listen properly, for example not looking around and yawning, instead make eye contact and ensuring body language looks engaging. moral judgments are supposed to be a matter of simple consequentialism: you add up how much suffering you think is caused by an action and balance it against the amount of good. When expanded it provides a list of search options that will switch the search inputs to match the current selection. A Consequentialist Manifesto for the Evolution of Medical Law. We should note that Consequentialism is based on two principles: Whether an act is right or wrong depends only on the results of that act. Join us! The use of FRT in health care suggests the importance of informed consent, data input and analysis quality, effective communication about incidental findings, and potential influence on patient-clinician relationships.
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